A Comprehensive Review: Pharmacognostical and Pharmacological Insights into Passiflora foetida

For example, the leaves and fruits of P. foetida have been decocted to cure biliousness and asthma, and the decoction of the leaves and roots is used as an emmenagogue and for hysteria. Leaf paste is also applied to the head to relieve giddiness and headaches. In addition, the plant is applied topically as lotions or poultices to treat erysipelas and ABSTRACT


INTRODUCTION
In order to maintain our health, medicinal plants and their extracts are essential components of the medical system.Earth is a rich source of medicinal plants, and many different medical systems, including Ayurveda, Unani, and Siddha, employ extracts from plants to treat illnesses.Few of them have undergone scientific investigation.Flavonoids, terpenes, and alkaloids-plant-derived natural productshave drawn a lot of interest lately because of their wide range of pharmacological characteristics, which include analgesic, antipyretic, and inflammatory effects [1,2].
With around 500 species, Passiflora is the biggest genus in the Passifloraceae family [3].Some species of the genus are used as ornamentals and have therapeutic qualities such as sedatives, antispasmodics, and antibacterials [4].approximately 40 species have been farmed, although only approximately 6 are fruit crops in the Neotropics, and only P. edulis (and its variants, including the yellow favicarpa), is commercially significant [5].Several species contain edible fruits and beautiful flowers.Known by most as "striking passionflower," Passiflora foetida L. is a highly recognized plant in the Passiflora genus with a plethora of ethnobotanical uses [6].For example, the leaves and fruits of P. foetida have been decocted to cure biliousness and asthma, and the decoction of the leaves and roots is used as an emmenagogue and for hysteria.Leaf paste is also applied to the head to relieve giddiness and headaches.In addition, the plant is applied topically as lotions or poultices to treat erysipelas and

ABSTRACT ARTICLE DETAILS
Passiflora foetida, commonly known as "stinking passionflower," is a medicinal plant with a long history of traditional use in various cultures for its therapeutic properties.This review provides an overview of the pharmacognostical and pharmacological characteristics of Passiflora foetida, highlighting its potential as a valuable source of bioactive compounds for pharmaceutical and nutraceutical applications.Pharmacognostical studies of Passiflora foetida encompass its morphological, anatomical, and chemical composition.Macroscopic and microscopic examinations reveal distinctive features such as the presence of glandular trichomes, characteristic floral structures, and specific secondary metabolites including flavonoids, alkaloids, and phenolic compounds.These features aid in the identification and quality control of Passiflora foetida plant material.Pharmacological investigations have demonstrated a wide range of biological activities associated with Passiflora foetida extracts and isolated compounds.These include anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antioxidant, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, and neuropharmacological effects, among others.Mechanistic studies have revealed the involvement of various molecular targets and pathways, supporting its traditional use in managing diverse health conditions.Furthermore, the safety profile of Passiflora foetida has been evaluated, with limited reports of adverse effects at recommended doses.However, further toxicological studies are warranted to fully assess its safety profile and potential interactions with other medications.In conclusion, Passiflora foetida exhibits promising pharmacognostical and pharmacological properties, validating its traditional use as a medicinal plant.antinociceptive, analgesic, depressive, anti-inflammatory, and antidiarrheal properties [7, 9, 10].In a similar vein, a number of bioactive substances that were separated from P. foetida-particularly flavonoids-have demonstrated significant pharmacological activities.Examples of these include luteolin and chrysoeriol, which have been proven to have strong anti-inflammatory activities [11].

Chemical Constituents of Passiflora foetida:
In 1980, the first report on chemical ingredient isolation was published.It is discovered that this plant mainly elaborates on flavonoids and their glycosides.The chemical composition of this plant's leaves and stems has been the primary focus of research.

PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES Cytotoxic, Antiapoptotic effects:
The purpose of this work was to analyze Passiflora foetida's cytotoxic and apoptotic effects and then identify the functional groups in charge of these effects.The methanol extract of P. foetida was used in this study to examine the cytotoxic and apoptotic effects on HeLa cell line cultures.The extract was added at different concentrations (25, 50, 75, 100, and 125 µg/ml), and the activity was confirmed using the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay and propidium iodide staining.Using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysis (FTIR), the functional groups of the bioactive substances were identified in order to determine the efficacy of the therapy.A dosedependent rise in cytotoxic activity was observed, with an inhibitory concentration value of 21.55 µg/ml, indicating a successful apoptosis.Moreover, functional groups of alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, steroids, terpenoids, phenols, and cardiac glycosides were validated by FTIR analysis, and these groups may be in charge of the previously mentioned action.P. foetida was shown to have highly potent cytotoxic and apoptotic properties, and its tenable functional groups were discovered [23].

Anti-inflammatory activity:
In traditional medicine, Passiflora foetida L. (Passifloraceae), a perennial climber in general, is used to cure a variety of illnesses.This study examined the role of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling in the control of inflammation as well as the anti-inflammatory properties of methanolic extracts of P. foetida L. (PFME).In lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced macrophage cells, PFME inhibited the expression of inducible cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and the synthesis of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2).Furthermore, PFME inhibited the release of cytokines that promote inflammation.Furthermore, PFME inhibited the phosphorylation of MAPKs (ERK1/2, p38, and JNK) in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells.Moreover, PFME prevented LPS-induced NF-κB activation, which was linked to nuclear p65 levels and the prevention of IκBα degradation and ensuing declines.These findings showed that the PFME suppressed the oxidative and inflammatory reactions brought on by LPS.Consequently, we suggest that the PFME could be useful in the treatment of inflammatory illnesses [24].

Antihypertensive activity:
According to Ichimura et al. (2006), in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs), oral administration of the plant's methanol extract (10 or 50 mg/kg) or luteolin (50 mg/kg), one of the extract's consistent polyphenols, dramatically reduced the SHRs' systolic and diastolic blood pressure.Liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) quantitative analysis revealed that the extract contained 41 g/g of luteolin-6-Cglucoside and 20 g/g of luteolin dry weight.Gamma amino butyric acid (GABA, 2.4 mg/g dry weight by LC-MS/MS), which has been described as an antihypertensive substance, was also present.The antihypertensive impact of the extract in SHRs may be mostly attributed to the GABA-induced antihypertensive effect and somewhat to the vasodilatory action of polyphenols, especially luteolin The extract contained a comparatively high concentration of GABA [26].

Antiepileptic and analgesic activity:
The antiepileptic activity of Passiflora foetida was assessed in mice through two methods: maximum electroshock (MES) induced convulsions and pentylenetetrazole induced convulsions.The analgesic activity was screened using Eddy's hot plate method with aspirin as the standard drug.Results showed that doses of 100mg/kg and 300mg/kg of Passiflora foetida significantly reduced the severity of seizures compared to the standard drugs phenytoin and diazepam in MES and pentylenetetrazole induced convulsions, respectively.Particularly, at these doses, Passiflora foetida completely abolished convulsions induced by pentylenetetrazole.In terms of analgesic activity, the methanol extract of Passiflora foetida exhibited maximum effect at 120 minutes post-administration.Additionally, the study indicated that the methanol extract demonstrated good analgesic activity at a dose of 100mg/kg compared to 50mg/kg.In summary, Passiflora foetida showed promising antiepileptic and analgesic properties in the evaluated experimental models, warranting further investigation for potential therapeutic applications [27].

Anxiolytic activity:
Throughout history, plant-based remedies have held a crucial role in healthcare due to their accessibility, affordability, and acceptance by communities.Passiflora, a genus known for its medicinal properties, particularly in treating nervous disorders, was the focus of our study.We aimed to analyze the presence of secondary metabolites in the methanolic extract of Passiflora foetida and assess its potential antianxiety effects using the Elevated Plus Maze (EPM) animal model.Our investigation revealed the presence of various secondary metabolites in the crude extract, including alkaloids, coumarins, flavonoids, glycosides, oils, fats, phenols, resin, sterols, steroids, saponins, tannins, and quinones.We then tested the extract's anxiolytic activity at doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg administered orally to mice, comparing its efficacy with the standard anxiolytic drug, diazepam (3 mg/kg, i.p).The results demonstrated a dosedependent increase in the number of entries into and time spent in the open arms of the maze, indicating anxiolytic effects.These findings provide scientific support for the traditional medicinal use of Passiflora foetida for its anxiolytic properties [28].

Hepatoprotective activity:
The potential protective effects of Passiflora foetida's aqueous extract (AEPF) on liver damage induced by paracetamol was explored in albino rats.Rats were divided into groups and treated for seven days: one group received distilled water (normal control), another received distilled water without AEPF (negative control), a third group received silymarin as a positive control, and the remaining groups were given different doses of AEPF.On the seventh day, all groups except the normal control were given paracetamol.After 24 hours, blood samples and liver tissues were collected for analysis.The results revealed that paracetamol caused significant increases in liver enzymes (ALT, AST and PAL) and bilirubin levels, as well as significant decreases in cholesterol, triglyceride, and protein levels in the rats.Additionally, the liver tissue showed severe damage.However, pretreatment with silymarin and AEPF mitigated these adverse effects in a dose-dependent manner.These findings suggest that Passiflora foetida may offer

Immunomodulatory activity:
The study aimed to assess the immunomodulatory potential of ethanol, petroleum ether, and ethyl acetate extracts of Passiflora foetida Linn, an Indian medicinal plant belonging to the Passifloraceae family, known to contain alkaloids and flavonoids.The research followed OECD Guideline No. 425 for acute toxicity testing.Immunomodulatory activity was evaluated through in vitro phagocytosis assessment using PMNs phagocytic activity and in vivo macrophage phagocytosis using the carbon clearance assay method.The ethanol extract, at concentrations of 300 μg/ml in vitro and 300 mg/kg body weight in vivo, exhibited significant dosedependent immunostimulatory effects compared to the control group.This activity is likely attributed to the presence of flavonoids, glycosides, and phytosterols in the ethanol extract.The findings suggest that Passiflora foetida Linn holds promise as a potential treatment for immune disorders, supporting its traditional use in folk medicine [30].

Antidiabetic activity:
This research explored the potential of Passiflora foetida (PF) methanolic extract to lower blood sugar levels in diabetic albino mice induced with alloxan.Diabetes, characterized by prolonged high blood sugar levels, poses significant health risks, and discovering effective treatments is crucial for reducing associated mortality and morbidity.The study induced diabetes in mice using alloxan and then administered varying concentrations of PF methanolic extract orally.Blood glucose levels were monitored at intervals over a 4-hour period.The extract demonstrated a significant reduction in blood glucose levels in diabetic mice (P<0.001).Additionally, key kinetic parameters such as area under the glucose concentration-time curve (AUC0-4hG), glucose mean residence time (MRTG), and glucose clearance rate (CLG) were notably improved in PF-treated groups compared to control groups.These findings suggest the presence of hypoglycemic components in the plant extract [31].

Antiulcer activity:
The current study aimed to assess the impact of an ethanolic extract derived from the entire Passiflora foetida plant on gastric ulcers.Researchers administered doses of 100 and 200 mg/kg of the extract and examined its effects on gastric ulcers induced by ethanol and aspirin.They also evaluated antioxidant levels and examined histological changes in the gastric tissue of ulcer-afflicted rats in both models.The results indicated that Passiflora foetida treatment significantly decreased ulcer severity and raised gastric pH levels in rats with ethanol and aspirin-induced ulcers.Additionally, the extract demonstrated notable reductions in lipid peroxidation and increases in reduced glutathione levels, affirming its antiulcer and antioxidant properties [32].

Antiosteoporotic activity:
The effect of butanolic fraction (BF) from Passiflora foetida was assessed on skeletal health in mice with estrogen deficiency-induced bone loss.The study was conducted on female Balb/c mice that underwent ovariectomy (OVx).The mice were given BF orally at doses of 50 and 100mg/kg/day for 8 weeks.We examined the microarchitecture of their long bones, assessed biomechanical strength, observed the formation of mineralized nodules by bone marrow osteoprogenitor cells, evaluated osteoid formation, and measured bone turnover markers.Statistical analysis using one-way ANOVA was employed to determine the significance of Passiflora foetida's effects.Our results showed that OVx mice treated with BF exhibited improved microarchitectural parameters at different anatomical sites, enhanced bone biomechanical strength, and increased osteoprogenitor cells in the bone marrow compared to the OVx group.Importantly, BF did not demonstrate estrogenic effects on the uterus.Overall, oral administration of BF at both doses (50 and 100mg/kg/day) derived from Passiflora foetida demonstrated anti-osteoporotic effects under conditions of estrogen deficiency, likely by stimulating osteoblast function and inhibiting osteoclast function [33].

CONCLUSION
Passiflora foetida, widely distributed globally, hold promise for bio-prospecting and pharmaceutical development, particularly in addressing ailments like anxiety, insomnia, convulsions, sexual dysfunction, cough, cancer, and postmenopausal syndrome.Despite ongoing research, numerous avenues for exploring its medicinal properties remain unexplored.A detailed examination of its chemical components is presented in this review, revealing a wide array of pharmacological effects on various organs and physiological processes, including brain function, blood circulation, cardiovascular health, and nervous system regulation.The diverse range of preparations, extracts, and individual compounds derived from Passiflora foetida demonstrate a broad spectrum of therapeutic potential, impacting processes such as proteosynthesis, reproductive health, and sexual function.Harnessing the phytochemicals and minerals present in these plants holds promise for furthering their therapeutic applications.